ContentsChapter 1 Introduction 11.1 Evolution of Global Climate and Ecological Eavironment 11.1.1 Impact of Human Activities on the Earth's Environment and the Livable Earth 11.1.2 Impact of Human Activities on Global Climate Change 41.1.3 Imupacts and Risks of Climate Change on Natural and Hum:an Systems 51.2 Historical Evolution of Climate�� Ecological Environment and Socio Economic Development in China 71.2.1 Overview 71.2.2 Historical Changes in Climate�� Ecological Environment and Socio-Economic Development 81.2.3 Contemporary Changes in Climate and Ecological Environment 101.2.4 Changes in Modern Social and Economic Development I21.3 Future Changes and Transformation and Development 141.3.1 Future Changes and Risks in Climate and Ecological .Environment I51.3.2 Actions to Deal with Climate Change and Protect Environment 171.3.3 Transition to Sustainable Development 191.4 Contribution of China's Assessment Reports on Climate��Environment and Ecology 201.5 Overview of This Assessment 22References 23Chapter 2 Observed Climate Change and Ecological Environment Evolution and Their Causes 252.1 Observed Facts 252.1.1 Atmosphere 252.1.2 Hydrosphere 282.1.3 Cryosphere 302.1.4 Ecosystem 322.1.5 Planetary Environment 362.2 Extreme Events 372.2.1 Extreme Temperature Events 382.2.2 Extreme Precipitation Events 382.2.3 Typhoon and Severe Convective Weather 412.2.4 Sand-Dust Storms and Haze 422.2.5 Cryospheric Events 422.2.6 Forest Fire Weather 442.2.7 Compound Extreme Events 452.2.8 Attribution of Extreme Events 462.3 Impacts of Human Activities on Climate Change in China 462.3.1 Impact of Human Activities on Atmospheric Composition and the Generated Radiative Forcing 462.3.2 Impact of Human Activities on Surface Solar Radiation and Surface Air Temperature in China 522.3.3 Impact of Human Activities on the East Asian Summer Monsoon Circulation and Precipitation in China 532.3.4 Impact of Human Activities on Extreme Climate Events in China 542.4 Large- Scale Factors Affecting Climate Change in China 552.4.1 East Asian Monsoon 552.4.2 Main Modes and Teleconnections of Atmospheric Circulations 592.4.3 Ocean Modes 602.4.4 Arctic Sea Ice and Snow Cover on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau 622.4.5 Snow Cover in Eurasia 632.5 Impacts of Climate Change on Socio-Economic Systems 642.5.1 The Impact Extent of Climate Change on Socio- Economic Systems 642.5.2 Regional Differences in the Impact of Climate Change on Socio- Economic Systems 71References 77Chapter 3 Projections of Future Climate Change and Risks 793.1 Anthropogenic Drivers of Future Climate Change 793.2 Earth System Models and Integrated Assessment Models 823.2.1 Earth System Models 823.2.2 Regional Climate Models 833.2.3 Integrated Assessment Models 863.3 Projections of Future Climate Change 883.3.1 Temperature 883.3.2 Precipitation923.4 Projections of Changes in Extreme Events 933.4.1 Temperature Extremes 933.4.2 Precipitation Extremes 963.4.3 Compound Extreme Events 983.5 Exposure and Vulnerability 983.5.1 Observed Exposure and Vulnerability Changes 993.5.2 Possible Changes in Socio- Economic Exposure and Vulnerability to Rainstorms and Flood Disasters 1023.5.3 Possible Changes in Socio- Economic Exposureand Vulnerability to Droughts 1023.5.4 Possible Changes in Population Health Exposure and Vulnerability to Heatwaves 1053.6 Future Climate Change Risks 1103.6.1 Water Resources 1113.6.2 Agriculture 1133.6.3 Cryosphere 1153.6.4 Ecosystem 1163.6.5 Human Habitat 1173.6.6 Human Health 1213.6.7 Major Projects 121References 127Chapter 4 Adaptation and Mitigation: Measures�� Actions and Effects 1294.1 Climate Change Adaptation 1304.1.1 Global Progress 1304.1.2 Adaptation Strategies 1314.1.3 Adaptation Technologies and Measure Options 1334.1.4 China's Adaptation to Climate Change: Actions and Effects 1384.2 Climate Change Mitigation 1464.2.1 Global Progress 1464.2.2 Mitigation Technology aund Measure Option 1504.2.3 China's Emission Reduction Policies and Effects 1524.2.4 Emission Reduction and Effects in China 1554.3 Synergized Effects of Adaptation and Mitigation 1564.3.1 Adaptation�� Mitigation and Their Interactions 1564.3.2 China's Synergized Adaptation and Mitigation Measures�� Actions and Effects 1604.3.3 Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies Under the Goals of the Paris Agreement 163References 164Chapter 5 The Development Pathways with Climate Resilience 1655.1 Global and China's Carbon Emission Budgets and Implementation Pathway Under the Warming Targets of the Paris Agreement 1655.1.1 Global and China's Carbon Emission Budgets 1655.1.2 Global Emission Reduction Pathways 1675.1.3 China's Emission