Contents
Abstract ii
Acknowledgements iii
Contents iv
List of Tables ix
List of Figures xi
List of Abbreviations xiii
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
1.1 The context of this study 1
1.1.1 Background of the researcher 1
1.1.2 Research context and rationale 4
1.2 Aims of the thesis 8
1.3 Layout of this thesis 9
Chapter 2: Language Planning and Policy (LPP) 12
2.1 Chapter overview 12
2.2 Terminologies: Language Planning and Language Policy 12
2.2.1 Language Planning 12
2.2.2 Language Policy 15
2.3 Frameworks for language planning 17
2.4 Language planning and policy in Cambodia since 1993 (the Constitutional Monarchy Period) 23
2.5 A brief review of the history of Chinese language education in Cambodia 26
2.6 The changes of Chinese identity and Chinese language education in Cambodia: forming, struggling, fading and rebirth 29
2.6.1 The forming of Chinese identity and the early Chinese education in Cambodia 29
2.6.2 The struggling of Chinese identity and the restrictions on Chinese education from World War II to the Cambodian pre-civil war 31
2.6.3 The concealment of Chinese identity and the fading of Chinese education during the Cambodian civil war 32
2.6.4 The rebirth of Chinese identity and the revitalization of Chinese language education since 1990s 33
2.6.5 Conclusion 35
2.7 Summary 35
Chapter 3: Language-in-education Planning (LEP) 37
3.1 Chapter overview 37
3.2 Language-in-education Planning (LEP): Educational change in language planning 37
3.2.1 Terminology 37
3.2.2 Kaplan and Baldauf’s Language-in-education Planning Framework 39
3.3 The status quo of Mandarin Chinese education in Cambodia 43
3.4 The debate about Heritage Language Education (HLE) and Teaching Chinese to Speakers of Other Languages (TCSOL) 48
3.5 Research on Mandarin Chinese education planning in Southeast Asia: Large-scale surveys and Small-scale case studies 51
3.5.1 Large-scale studies 51
3.5.2 Small-scale studies 57
3.5.3 Summary of relevant research 60
3.6 Summary 61
Chapter 4: Policy intention and teachers’ beliefs 62
4.1 Chapter overview 62
4.2 Policy intention and implementation 62
4.3 Teachers’ beliefs 64
4.3.1 Definitions 64
4.3.2 Factors may influence teachers’ beliefs 65
4.4 Mandarin Chinese teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and professional development 69
4.4.1 Research on TCSOL teachers of China 69
4.4.2 Research on indigenous Chinese language teachers in Southeast Asian countries 73
4.5 Summary 77
4.6 Overall summary of literature 77
Chapter 5: Methodology 78
5.1 Chapter overview 78
5.2 Research questions 78
5.3 Theoretical framework of this study 79
5.3.1 Epistemology: Constructionism 79
5.3.2 Theoretical perspective: Interpretivism 80
5.3.3 Research paradigm: Qualitative 81
5.4 Research methodology: case study 82
5.4.1 Rationale for using case study in this research 82
5.4.2 Multiple case studies in this research 83
5.5 Researcher’s positionality and reflexivity in this study 84
5.6 Data collection 87
5.6.1 The phase of preparation 88
5.6.2 Pilot 93
5.6.3 Main research-fieldwork 96
5.7 Data analysis 103
5.7.1 Data management 103
5.7.2 Document analysis 105
5.7.3 Thematic analysis 107
5.8 Ethics 111
5.9 Trustworthiness 113
5.9.1 Credibility 113
5.9.2 Transferability 115
5.9.3 Dependability 116
5.9.4 Confirmability 116
5.10 Summary 117
Chapter 6: Results Part One- Introduction of Profiles 118
6.1 Chapter overview 118
6.2 Profiles of the participating Chinese schools 118
6.2.1 Case study one-School X 118
6.2.2 Case study two-School Y 121
6.2.3 Conclusion of school profiles 123
6.3 Profiles of the participants in the interview of this study 126
6.3.1 Profiles of policymakers 126
6.3.2 Profiles of Mandarin Chinese teachers 127
6.4 Profiles of the participants in the classroom observation of this study 131
6.5 Conclusion 134
Chapter 7: Results Part Two- Findings regarding Policy and School Practice 135
7.1 Chapter overview 135
7.2 Findings from policy documents 135
7.2.1 National language educational policies of Cambodia 136
7.2.2 Educational policies issued by the FKCC 140
7.3 Findings- School policy and school practice 151
7.3.1 Case study one: School X 152
7.3.2 Case study two: School Y 157
7.3.3 Conclusion of cross-case synthesis 161
7.4 Summary 163
Chapter 8: Results Part Three- Themes from the study 164
8.1 Chapter overview 164
8.2 Theme One: The FKCC’s educational reform policies 164
8.2.1 Sub-theme one: Teachers’ views on the FKCC’s
curriculum reform policy 165
8.2.2 Sub-theme two: Teachers’ views on the FKCC’s policy regarding teacher cooperation 170
8.2.3 Sub-theme three: Teachers’ views on the FKCC’s policy of the expansion of Khmer students’ enrolment 174
8.2.4 Conclusion of Theme One 177
8.3 Theme Two: The FKCC’s assigned textbook of “Huawen” (Chinese Literacy) 177
8.4 Theme Three: The classroom teaching 183
8.4.1 Sub-theme one: The use of Khmer language in class 183
8.4.2 Sub-theme two: The focus and methods in classroom teaching 196
8.4.3 Conclusion of Theme Three 203
8.5 Theme Four: The evaluation system of students’ learning achievement 204
8.5.1 Sub-theme one: Teachers’ views on student examination arrangements 204
8.5.2 Sub-theme two: Teachers’ views on students’ engaging in the FKCC Composition Competition 208
8.5.3 Sub-theme three: Teachers’ beliefs of how to evaluate students’ learning success 211
8.6 Theme Five: Professional development and training 214
8.6.1 Sub-theme one: Indigenous teachers’ dilemma for professional development 217
8.6.2 Sub-theme two: The training needs of teachers from China for Cambodia-focused TCSOL 221
8.6.3 Conclusion of Theme Five 227
8.7 Summary 227
Chapter 9: Results Part Four- Factors Influencing Teachers’ Beliefs 228
9.1 Chapter overview 228
9.2 Teachers’ past educational background 228
9.3 Teachers’ understanding of Chinese school
education in Cambodia 231
9.3.1 Indigenous teachers’ understanding of Chinese
school education: heritage education or the teaching of subject knowledge
through Mandarin Chinese 231
9.3.2 Hanban teachers’ understanding of Chinese school education: TCSOL 233
9.4 Teachers’ training and teaching experience 234
9.4.1 More teaching experience but less training in TCSOL of indigenous teachers 236
9.4.2 More experience in teaching Chinese as L1 but less training in TCSOL of COEA teachers 237
9.4.3 More training in TCSOL but less teaching experience of Hanban teachers 238
9.5 School profiles and educational resources 239
9.5.1 School X: City heritage Chinese school with high proportion of ethnic Chinese students 239
9.5.2 School Y: Rural Chinese school rooted in local Khmer community with high proportion of Khmer students 241
9.6 The policy intention of the FKCC 244
9.7 Summary 245
Chapter 10: Discussion and Conclusion 247
10.1 Chapter overview 247
10.2 Key findings of this research 247
10.2.1 Research question 1: How does the FKCC implement Mandarin Chinese education lanning and policy (MCPP) at Chinese school level of Cambodia? 247
10.2.2 Research question 2: What are different groups of Mandarin Chinese teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and perceptions regarding the FKCC’s MCPP in Chinese schools of Cambodia? 253
10.2.3 Research question 3: What are possible factors influencing Mandarin Chinese teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and perceptions? 258
10.3 The extension of Kaplan and Baldauf’s LEP framework (2003) in the planning of Mandarin Chinese education in Chinese schools of Cambodia 262
10.3.1 The LEP frameworks used by the FKCC 262
10.3.2 Challenges in the LEP frameworks used by the FKCC 272
10.3.3 Recommendations and suggestions 275
10.4 Conclusion of this study 280
10.5 Contributions of this study 281
10.5.1 The original contributions to research areas 281
10.5.2 Triangulated research methods and analysis 283
10.6 Limitations of this study 284
10.7 Implications for future research 287
10.8 Closing remarks 289
References 291